The English Reformation
Paul Roberts, with additions
- 11 minutes read - 2202 wordsPrecursors:
Wycliffe and the Lollards (see last week)
Humanism’s influence on scholarship: not just reformers – eg. Thomas More (1478-1532)
The beginning of reform
Henry VIII (1491–1547), King of England from 1509–1547.
Married Katherine of Aragon (daughter of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella) in 1509. K had been married to Henry’s older brother, Arthur, who had died in 1502.
Henry wasn’t a natural ‘reformer’ – tended to be very conservative about belief and practice: wrote Assertio Septem Sacramentorum (asserting there are seven sacraments) against Luther in 1521. Pope bestowed on him the title Defender of the Faith (Fides Defensor) in thanks.
Katherine failed to produce a male heir: her only surviving child was the princess Mary (1515 – 1558). Henry fell for Anne Boleyn around 1525.
Henry blamed his lack of an heir on God’s wrath (see Lev 20:21). Petitioned for an annullment from the pope on the grounds that the marriage was invalid as contrary to God’s law. Pope couldn’t grant one, as he was imprisoned (in Rome) by forces of Charles V – Holy Roman Emperor – the nephew of Katherine. In addition, a papal dispensation had been granted for the marriage.
All the main churchmen of England tried to assist in getting the annullment, including Cardinal Wolsey (Papal Legate). They failed, which led to Wolsey’s ‘fall’ in 1529 – he was originally a commoner and had lots of enemies at the court. After period of imprisonment and increasing privation, sickened and died on way to trial in York.
In his place, Thomas More became Chancellor. The following year (1530) Thomas Cromwell, a lawyer and Wolsey’s secretary, was appointed to the Privy Council and became the King’s chief adviser. Canon law, controlled by the Pope, was far more significant source of law than today.
In 1530, Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) who was then a lecturer at Cambridge, sent to seek opinion of the leaders of the reform (inc. …, Zwingli), who were more obliging in providing a theological justification for annullment, but the existing clergy were obedient to Rome (as was Henry). Cranmer given job as ambassador to the Imperial Court of Charles V. During this time, he had further contact with reformers and married neice of Osiander (reformer in Nuremburg), thus breaking his clerical vow of celibacy. Sign he was, by then, clearly on the side of the reformation.
The old archbishop of Canterbury, Warham, died in 1532, and Cranmer appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry marries Anne (believing that his marriage to Katherine was null and void). Cromwell passes a judgement in parliament that the marriage to Katherine was invalid. Cranmer blesses the marriage in May 1533.Thomas More resigned the previous year, leaving the power behind the throne to Protestants.
Pope Clement threatens Henry with excommunication in July unless new marriage revoked.
Restraint of Appeals Act 1533 passed: anyone who disseminates pope’s legislation guilty of Praemunire (medieval law to clip the wings of the clergy if asserting primacy of pope over King).
Act of Supremacy (November 1534) broke the link with Rome: the King was ‘Head of the Church of England’ - the Pope’s jurisdiction was no longer legal. The ‘Church of England’ was distinct from the ‘Church of Rome’.
From this point on legal authority changed but there was only one church-the catholic church-it was just that the King was in charge of it not the Pope.
Dissolution of Monasteries
Monasticism had fallen into disrepute in late-medieval England. Until Act of Supremacy, only the Pope and bishops could dissolve monasteries. This did happen on occasions (eg. under Cardinal Wolsey). Cromwell’s inventory of monastic possessions (1534). The visitation by Cranmer’s commissioners: exposed bogus use of relics to con pilgrims; sexual immorality. Probably some truth in these but also likely threats from the commissioners to extract confessions.
Suppression of Religious Houses Act in 1535 marked the first stage of dissolution, mainly of minor monastic houses. Importantly, all property of closed religious houses would revert to the Crown (ie. the King). Voluntary closure led to pensions for abbots and monks.
1538, further legislation, enforcing closure on larger monasteries, on pain of treason, e.g. at Glastonbury Abbey.
Although the monasteries’ property was initially owned by the Crown, Henry subsequently sold it off to local gentry to fund his lavish expenditure and the cost of wars he pursued.
The Halting Progress of Reform
1536 – The Ten Articles issued by convocation
1537 – the Bishops’ Book
Both generally Lutheran: justification by faith, limited sacraments.
1540 – The ‘Fall’ of Cromwell: executed for treason (again, a commoner with a lot of power, hence enemies).
1540 – Return of Bishop Stephen Gardiner of Winchester (against reform) – intellectual force.
1541 – Publication of The Great Bible (first official Bible in English) to be placed in all churches. (Henry had persecuted William Tyndale for translating the Bible just a few years before). But services still in Latin.
1543 – The Kings Book (more catholic, less protestant) and The Six Articles (again, reinforcing Catholic doctrine).
1543 - Cramner survives plot.
So a more [English] Catholic recovery.
1546 – plot against Katherine Parr (Henry’s 6th wife) stopped by the king himself; Parr was a protestant, so the pendulum swung back to favour reform in the latter years of the reign.
Edward VI
Edward became king in 1547, at the age of 9. Edward Seymour became Lord Protector. Protestant reform marches forward throughout the reign.
1547 – Injunctions removing images and rood screens, destroying shrines and stained glass. Processions for holy days banned.
1549 – The Act of Uniformity: new prayer book in English, offending Catholic doctrine (purgatory, mass as sacrifice) removed. Called ‘The Book of Common Prayer’ to replace local (Latin) variations. Attacked from both sides:
critique by Martin Bucer (reformer) and
affirmation by Stephen Gardiner (catholic) so made further reform inevitable.
In 1552, a further Act of Uniformity – with second BCP: reforms the Communion to remove any doctrine of the mass as a sacrifice and also any sense that the bread and wine of communion were the body and blood of Christ.
Mary I
1553 – Death of Edward VI; accession of Mary I. Recinding of Act of Supremacy and all other reforming legislation. Church of England back under control of the Pope, masses again in Latin. Imprisonment and execution of Cranmer, Ridley and other protestant bishops not least for supporting Lady Jane Grey over Henry’s will for succession. Exile for others in Strasbourg, Frankfurt and Geneva.
Mary reinstated old catholic heresy laws and a total of 283 protestants were burned for heresy during her reign. (Hence her title ‘Bloody Mary’). Mary married Philip II of Spain, but – despite a false pregnancy – no heir was born. Mary herself died in 1558.
Impractical to restore monasteries as already in disrepair and new owners would not have stood it.
Cardial Pole (pronounced Pool) replaced Cramner as ABC and first cardinal since Wolsey.
Elizabeth I
1558 - Act of Supremacy was passed, shortly after Elizabeth’s coronation. Although broadly the same as Henry’s, Elizabeth was described in the new act as the ‘supreme governor’ rather than ‘head’ of the Church of England, since only Christ can be the ‘head’ of the Church. This remains the title of the monarch to the present day.
All bar one of the bishops refused to accept it, so lost their seats.
Since patristic times, need 3 bishops to consecrate a new bishop in order to preserve broad representation.
Elizabeth appointed Matthew Parker as the new Archbishop of Canterbury, the question of Apostolic Succession raised its head. Parker ordained bishop by four bishops: two of these had been ordained using the 1551 Ordinal, two by bishops who had been ordained using the old Latin ordinal. Although these bishops had all be ordained after England broke with Rome, they had all been ordained by bishops who had been ordained when England was still in communion with Rome.
To this date this remains the basis for the validity of Anglican episcopate, though not seen that way by Catholics.
1558, Act of Uniformity: reinstated the 1552 BCP but with some changes.
The words of distribution were a combination of the words from 1549 and 1552, making up the words which now form part of the 1662 BCP:
the body of our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life; take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving.
Removal of the ‘Black Rubric’ (from 1552, which denied the presence of Christ in the bread and wine of communion) was omitted.
Elizabeth was a conservative reformer 'thus far and no further'
Growing reformers’ frustration: led, over time, to them becoming a distinct ‘party’ within the Church: the Puritans.
Others felt England had got the balance just right.
Exiles had been in exposed to, amongst others, Genevan Protestantism, which they saw as a complete and fully reformed model for the church.
Led to work of Richard Hooker. (1554–1600) defending the Elizabethan church against Rome and against Puritans.
Philip of Spain sought and received permit from Pope to challenge Britain and launched underground priests on England
1584 - Jesuits etc Act: illegal to be active Catholic priest in England
Slow but growing persecution of catholics and the Spanish war.
The Early Stuart Kings
The Elizabethan ‘Settlement’ – the Continental Reformation was largely complete by the end of her long reign. For reformed Anglicans – the reformation of the Church was incomplete. For others, it was just about enough. James VI of Scotland (James Stewart) accedes to the English throne as James I.
1562 - John Knox Book of commmon order(?)
Though Scotland was Calvinist reformed in his reign, James had a Catholic mother and was at heart an autocrate, preferring the control provided by bishops (as opposed to presbyters). Hence he preferred the English Church settlement.
The Millenary Petition (Puritan complaints):
Signing of the cross in baptism
Confirmation by bishop (not biblical)
Baptism by lay people (especially women, for example by midwifes if baby appeared sick)
The use of a ring in marriage
Bowing at the name of Jesus
The requirement of a minister to wear a surplice at worship
Pluralities of benefices (drawing multiple sources of tithe-income)
This led to the Hampton Court Conference. No change, but commissioning of a new translation of the Bible, the KJV/Authorised Version.
1604 - New code of Canon Law: further changes of practice in a slightly more ‘catholic’ direction: eg. consumption of consecrated remains of the bread and wine of communion.
Throughout James reign and more so under his son Charles, direction of travel was towards Catholocism
fencing in of altar (rood screen?)
return of altar from mid-choir to rear wall
Laudianism
After William Laud: Oxford scholar, then Dean of Gloucester; Bishop of St Davids, Bath and Wells and Archbishop of Canterbury. Return to more ‘catholic’ layout of churches. Autocrat. Persecutor of Puritans, whom he regarded as heretics. Forced liturgical reform on Scotland (and imposition of bishops).
The English Civil War and the Commonwealth
Charles’ belief in divine right of kings to govern (loosely based on Romans 13) and Laud’s authoritarianism led to clash with Parliament, dominated by Puritans. Ultimately led to Civil War (1642-1551) between Parliamentarians and Royalists.
1645 – after military defeats, Charles imprisoned, tried for treason and executed. His son declared new king by Royalists in Channel Islands; further war. Charles II’s forces defeated and he escapes to France.
The Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell.
Episcopacy Banned
Book of Common Prayer made illegal – used Westminster Directory to help the minister conduct the service.
Lack of uniformity of faith (even Jews were readmitted for first time since 1290) led to religions plurality of practice; also Baptists, Congregationalists; Quakers; Ranters; Levellers; Diggers; etc.
Unpopular moves: banning festivals; sabbatarian rules
Pluralism in religion led to failure of political consensus in Parliament
Death of Cromwell, lack of confidence in his son, Richard, by the Army. Self-dissolution of Parliament. Invasion of royalist forces from Scotland. Threat of further, anarchic, return to Civil War worried many.
Charles was able to return and state the terms of his own reign: The Restoration of the Monarchy including the term that he had been king ever since his father’s execution.
The Restoration
Restoration of Episcopacy at Charles’ insistence including their role as royal ministers.
Savoy Conference, to hear concerns of Puritan clergy. New Book of Common Prayer – mainly 1559, but with consolidation of Stewart changes (rubrics at the Prayer of Consecration), consolidated belief in the “real presence” in Communion.
1662 - New Act of Uniformity: Over 2000 ministers could not accept it, so were ejected from their livings (‘The Great Ejection’).
At this point, we get the division of English protestantism into: ‘non- conformists’ and ‘conformists’ (ie. Anglicans).
1661-1664 Clarendon Code (after Lord Chancellor, Earl of Clarendon): legislation to persecute non-conformity. Some were repealed in 1689 with Act of Toleration, but it remained impossible for non-Conformists to go to University or to sit in Parliament until 19th century.
Church of England: was it fully reformed? Not really.
Describes itself as ‘Catholic and Reformed’.
Others say it is neither
Can even have both tendancies in the same person!